The War of Independence and U.S. Occupation: 1895-1902

The Cuban War of Independence broke out in February, 1895. In September, the revolutionaries proclaimed a new republic, and appointed a president and vice president. Cuba's general population supported the new republican government; the colonial government responded at first with brutal destruction of property and life, but later established more conciliatory policies. The population was not satisfied with these new policies, however, and continued hostilities.

For three years the battles went on. At first, the United States did not recognize the new republican government, but there was a strong lobby to do so on the part of Americans involved in Cuban trade. By 1898, American representatives in Cuba were urging the United States not only to recognize the republican government, but also to assist the revolutionaries. In February, 1898, the U.S.S. Maine was sent to Havana harbor to protect U.S. citizens during riots in Havana, and on February 15th it exploded and sank, killing 266 people. Blaming Spain, the U.S. Congress passed resolutions demanding that Spain grant independence to Cuba, that the colonial government withdraw, and that President McKinley be authorized to use force to ensure that withdrawal. Viewing this as an act of aggression, Spain declared war on the United States in April, the United States immediately reciprocated, and the result was the Spanish-American War.

With the United States in the picture, the war was won in short order, bringing a decisive end to the Spanish empire. Under the terms of the treaty signed by Spain and the United States (but not Cuba!), Spain lost all its overseas possessions. Among other actions, Guam and Puerto Rico were ceded to the United States, and sovereignty of the Philippines was transferred to the United States for $20,000,000. Spain relinquished all claim to Cuba, but the United States had earlier announced its intention through the Teller Amendment not to establish control of Cuba.

Some Cuban revolutionaries welcomed U.S. military intervention, as they thought it would bring political recognition to their movement as well as material aid. Despite earlier warnings from José Martí (who had been killed in battle in May, 1895), they thought that the Teller Amendment would protect the island from undue American control, and that the United States would support the new republic.

When Spain relinquished control in 1899, however, a U.S. military government took over the governing of the island. The American overseers began a program that would lead Cuba to independence, but with a number of controls and restrictions. The U.S. administration restored services, taking control of customs, sanitation, and the postal service. In addition, malaria and yellow fever were eliminated on the island, and education and the infrastructure were also improved.

In 1900, municipal elections were held and a constitution drafted. In order to ensure U.S. control, a series of clauses, known as the Platt Amendment, were attached to the draft of that constitution. Among other things, this amendment restricted Cuba's ability to enter into treaties, gave the United States the power to intervene in Cuban affairs, and permitted the United States to purchase or lease land for naval stations. In essence, the United States remained Cuba's legal guardian.

The Platt Amendment also guaranteed the United States the right to lease property "in perpetuity" at Guantánamo Bay for the purpose of building a U.S. naval base.

The Cubans at first refused to sign the constitution, as the Platt Amendment was a humiliation to Cuban sovereignty. However, when signing it became a condition for U.S. withdrawal from the island, the Cubans acquiesced. The constitution was ratified in 1901, and Cuba officially became an independent republic in 1902.

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