Religion

Ninety-five percent of Iraqis are Muslims ('Muslim' is the term for one who practices the religion of Islam), and, while an individual Iraqi might or might not adhere to all the beliefs and practices of Islam, it is a very powerful social force.

Islam is the most recent of the world religions to have arisen in the Middle East. It was founded by the prophet Muhammad, who was born in Mecca in the 6th century CE His flight from Mecca to Medina in 622 to escape persecution marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar. This calendar is a lunar calendar rather than a solar one, and the Islamic year is, correspondingly, 11 days shorter than the Western year. Muslim holidays therefore "rotate" around the Western calendar, as will be discussed below, and the years have over the centuries been slowly catching up to the Western ones. Western 1995, for example, is Islamic 1414 and 1415, only 581 years fewer instead of 622.

Muhammad's revelations from God have been compiled in the Koran, and this, along with his noninspirational statements and records of his personal conduct—the Hadith—form the basis for a code of behavior that is relatively standard across the Muslim world, despite local variations. Besides the Koran and Hadith, the Pentateuch and Psalms from the Old Testament and the Christian Gospels from the New Testament are recognized, although they are considered to have been altered and not to represent exactly the words of God.

Muslims believe that religion, law, commerce, and social policies are inseparable, and have dealt with a fundamental, continuing dualism since the discovery of oil plunged them into the secular Western world. These days, almost all the countries in the Muslim world (Saudi Arabia and Iran are notable exceptions) have adapted Western legal codes, but private matters are usually still handled in Islamic courts of law. The Ba'ath government of Iraq is a resolutely secular one, and as such has been at odds with traditional Islamic tenets.

The difference between the Sunni and Shi'ite Muslims, which has played such a part in Iraqi history, has to do with the early history of the religion. After Muhammad's death, the entire Muslim community recognized the legitimacy of the next three successors, or caliphs. The fourth caliph was Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. His legitimacy was challenged by Mu'awiyah, the governor of Syria, and after the Battle of Siffin in 657, Ali was forced to withdraw. He moved his capital to Iraq, and was murdered shortly thereafter. His followers refused to recognize the legitimacy of Mu'awiyah's caliphate, and established the Shi'a sect. The fundamental difference between the sects, then, is an argument about authority, not doctrine: the Shi'as believe that Ali was the legitimate successor to Muhammad, and the Sunnis believe that the successor should be elected and therefore that Mu'awiyah and his successors were legitimate. Because of their numerical superiority, the Sunnis refer to themselves as the "orthodox" sect.

The everyday behavior of individuals belonging to both sects reflects the five basic teachings of Islam, commonly referred to as the Five Pillars.

The first Pillar is the declaration of the oneness of God, encapsulated in the phrase, "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the prophet of God." This is the basic affirmation of Islamic belief: Saying and firmly believing it qualifies one as a Muslim.

The second Pillar is prayer: Five times a day, Muslims are required to pray, facing Mecca, in a series of prayers said first from a standing and then from a kneeling position. People are encouraged to pray in the mosque; the bigger mosques have special, separate areas for women. Prayer times are announced by muezzins who chant from the minarets of mosques at the appropriate times each day (although now, most of the calls to prayer are recorded). One of the most touching reminders that one is in an Islamic country is the frequent sight of a simple laborer praying by himself in the middle of a city, oblivious to the traffic and bustle around him. Another reminder is a sign in each hotel room showing the direction of Mecca. Yet another in many Muslim countries is that shops close at prayer times. And there are the echoing calls to prayer from different mosques in one's neighborhood, heard most clearly in the silences of late night and early morning.

The third Pillar is fasting: the ninth month of the Islamic year is Ramadan, and Muslims are expected throughout the month to refrain from eating, drinking, smoking, and "other worldly pleasures" all day long. Certain exceptions—the sick, soldiers, travelers, children, the elderly, pregnant and menstruating women—are allowed. The day is carefully measured: It begins when there is enough light to distinguish a black thread from a white thread, and ends when the last light has left the sky. The main meal of the day is after sunset, and special care is taken that poor people are adequately fed.

Ramadan rotates through the year, occurring 11 days earlier each year. Ramadan is always hard on those who fast, but especially so when it falls during the summer months. Work slows down considerably during Ramadan: Westerners who work in Islamic countries are accustomed not to expect to get much done during the month.

The extent to which Ramadan is observed varies from individual to individual and from society to society. In recent years, with the rise of Islamic fundamentalism, more Muslims are fasting. There have always been many Muslim individuals and communities in the United States who observe Ramadan.

The fourth Pillar of Islam is the giving of alms. Traditionally, it was expected that one would automatically give a fortieth of one's income to those in need. Now, the religious requirement of almsgiving is recognized, but the exact contribution is left up to the individual conscience. Many people contribute 2.5% of their net income after basic family expenses are met.

The fifth Pillar of Islam is the pilgrimage to Mecca, called the Hajj, the high point of a devout Muslim's religious experience. The trip is not required of people too poor to pay their own way, but many villagers will scrimp and save their whole lives to make the journey. There are restrictions on one's behavior while on the pilgrimage, including what one wears and what one does on reaching Mecca. Shi'ites can hire someone to go to Mecca as substitutes, or visit, instead of Mecca, the Shi'ite holy places: An-Najaf in Iraq, where Ali is buried, or Karbala in Iraq or Meshed in Iran, tombs of Shi'ite saints.

There are two other minor pillars: One of them is the requirement to do good works and to avoid evil thoughts, words, and deeds. The other minor pillar is the continuing effort to protect Islamic lands, beliefs, and institutions and to live every day as God has prescribed. The word for this pillar, jihad (effort), has become politicized, and is frequently used now to refer to the Muslim side of a conflict. The resistance on the part of the Muslim Afghans against the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan was routinely referred to as a jihad; the terrorist plans for attacks on the city of New York are also considered by the terrorists to be part of a jihad, in that they are in opposition to non-Muslim secular governments.

It should be emphasized that, just as religious customs and fashions come and go in the Western world, they do in the Islamic world as well. For the past few years, Islamic fundamentalism has been on the upswing. Along with the downfall of the Shah of Iran and the establishment of the fundamentalist Islamic government there, the fundamentalist movement has made itself felt throughout the Islamic world, even in such secular countries as Turkey. Many young Muslims are more devout than their parents. Westerners have been surprised to hear that female university students in many Islamic countries have returned to the practice of covering their hair in public, and many areas that had loosened up with regard to Islamic strictures at odds with Western practice—for example the availability of alcohol—have tightened up again.

The Cultural Orientation Project--http://www.culturalorientation.net, for more information contact sanja@cal.org
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