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The Islamic Worldview

The Basic Tenets of Islam

Practices and Holy Day

CHAPTER 2
Muslims From Varied Cultures: Commonality and Diversity

Islam is considered by Muslims to be one religion, and all Muslims profess the same Shahada (declaration of faith). The two major branches of Islam are Sunni and Shi‘a. The separation between these two groups dates from the period immediately after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, when different views arose regarding the leadership succession. The Sunni, who make up approximately 85% of all Muslims (Marshall, Green, & Gilbert, 2002, p. 27), take their name from the Sunna, or teachings of the Prophet Muhammad. The Shi‘a or Shiites, the remaining 15%, are primarily found in Iran and Iraq. Within each of the two branches there are various subgroups, each with its own conception of the nature of religious authority and the norms for leading a life of piety. Tariqat, or Sufi orders that stress the spiritual aspects of religious experience, represent other expressions of Islam. An individual Muslim’s beliefs and practices may vary depending on the type of Islam he or she follows.

While Muslims throughout the world share the same essential beliefs and values, cultural overlays cause differences in the ways individuals and groups observe their faith. In addition, a number of cultural traits of people of Middle Eastern and Asian origin are consistent with Islam, and it is difficult sometimes to separate cultural characteristics from religious expectations. These include self-control and restraint in emotional expression, respect for authority, well-defined social roles and expectations, awareness of social milieu, communal responsibility, high regard for the elderly, and the centrality of family relationships and responsibility.

This diversity found throughout the ummah (the community of Muslims) is an asset because it contributes to the vitality of the ummah as a whole. However, it makes the work of a service provider more complicated. This chapter provides general information about Islam that can help service providers understand the behaviors and attitudes of Muslim refugees, but it is important to talk with individual refugees to learn more about their specific expectations, understandings, and forms of observance. Religious and cultural backgrounds influence newcomer refugees’ perspectives, as do their individual interpretations.

The Islamic worldview enjoins people to live in peace..

The Islamic Worldview

Islam is a monotheistic religion based on the tradition of Abraham, as are Judaism and Christianity. Muslims use the Arabic word Allah for God, the Creator. This is the same word used by Christians in the Middle East. Islam arose during the seventh century C.E. in the Arabian Peninsula. Muslims believe that Allah chose Muhammad ibn Abdullah to be the last prophet of the monotheistic religions.

The Qur’an is the holy book of Islam. Muslims believe that its text was divinely revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the Archangel Gabriel. The Qur’an forms the basis of belief for Muslims. The Sunna, or teachings of the Prophet Muhammad, provide additional guidance. The Sunna and traditions about the life of the Prophet Muhammad are preserved in the Hadith, texts that Muslims regard as authoritative although they were not divinely revealed in the same way as the Qur’an. For many Muslims, guidance for every situation encountered in life is provided in the words of the Qur’an, and the teachings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad provide models for behavior.

The Arabic root of the word Islam—slm—means peace and submission (to the will of Allah); the word Muslim literally means “submitter.” The Islamic worldview enjoins people to live in peace. Allah has placed them as His stewards on earth. Islam directs Muslims to do good and to avoid evil. Humans have free will and can choose which actions to take. An important component of leading a good life is to have taqwa, or a consciousness of Allah at all times.

For many of its adherents, Islam is a total way of life, guided first by the Qur’an and then by the Sunna. All areas of life—religious, economic, social, and political—are addressed, and guidelines for the faithful are provided. Muslims do not come under one worldwide authority. Instead, a variety of religious leaders and learned individuals interpret the Qur’an and the Sunna and other religious texts for the faithful. As in any global religion, Islamic religious leaders and scholars may differ widely among themselves on matters of faith and practice.

Shari‘a and adab are core values in Islam (Ewing, 1988, p. 5). Shari‘a refers to the concept of the “right way” in Islam, a body of law and a code of conduct. It is outlined by the Qur’an and the Sunna. According to Metcalf (1984), adab refers to rules or a code of behavior applicable to all individuals. She describes it as “a concept of the well-constructed life, the harmonious life of a person who knows his relationship to God, to others, and to himself, and who, as a result, plays a special role among his or her fellows” (p. vii). adab is also used to refer to discipline and training, etiquette, and proper behavior. Parents are expected to raise their children in this correct form of conduct. The understanding of adab can also refer to spiritual discipline, that is, inner strength.

Islam clearly defines the roles, rights, and responsibilities of the family and its individual members. Interpretations and theological positions on family law differ among Muslim groups because of differences among legal schools of thought (Rahman, 1980). Nonetheless, all Muslims place a high value on childbearing and childrearing, and emphasize responsibilities to elders. Parents are expected to provide for their children, and adult children are expected to care for their aging parents.

The family bond is central to the lives of Muslims. A strong family bond may aid Muslim refugees in their resettlement. However, obligations to family members who remain in the home country or in the country of first asylum may be a source of stress because the resettled refugee continues to feel responsible and wants to assist those family members in need.

The tenets of Islam and the events of the life of the Prophet Muhammad are integral to the cultures of Muslim peoples.

The Basic Tenets of Islam

Six articles of faith characterize Islam. They affirm a Muslim’s belief in a divine being and human responsibility. All are based upon the Qur’an (Al-Misri, 1991; Faruqi, 1998; Smith, 1999). The articles of faith are:

1. Belief in the tawhid (oneness) of Allah: The term tawhid means both Allah’s oneness and the acknowledgement of this by humans.
   
   
2. Belief in angels: Muslims believe that angels have an active role in this temporal life and in the afterlife. The Angel Gabriel brought the divine revelation of the Qur’an to the Prophet Muhammad.
   
   
3. Belief in the Holy Books: The Qur’an clearly states that Allah sent books, or revelations, to both the Jews and Christians before the revelations to the Prophet Muhammad. Muslims believe that each of the holy books, including the Torah and the Bible, contains Allah’s revelations to mankind, with the final revelation being given to the Prophet Muhammad.
   
   
4. Belief in Allah’s messages: Muslims believe that Allah sent messages to humans in various ways through special people. The latter are referred to as prophets or messengers. Muslims believe that the messengers of God started with Adam and included Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad is the last prophet sent by God.
   
   
5. Belief in the Judgment Day and the afterlife: The concept of tawhid brings together the oneness of Allah and human responsibility. On the Judgment Day, Allah will bring all people together and each person will be accountable for his or her actions during life.
   
   
6. Belief in Allah’s Decree: Muslims believe that all things happen by the will of Allah. However, this does not preclude the individual Muslim from taking responsibility for his or her condition (Abd Al Ati, 1977). Muslims are exhorted to persist in improving their own condition through planned efforts, but to ultimately leave the outcomes of their efforts to Allah (Ross-Sheriff & Hussein, in press).

The tenets of Islam and the events of the life of the Prophet Muhammad are integral to the cultures of Muslim peoples. For this reason, both observant and non-observant Muslims frequently use certain expressions that may sound “religious” to Western ears. One such common expression is insha ’Allah (Allah willing), which connotes a sense of hope that one’s efforts will meet with success by the will of Allah. Service providers may interpret this expression to mean the client will do his/her best and leave the rest to Allah. When referring to the Prophet Muhammad, Muslims customarily follow the mention of his name with the phrase es-salamu alaihi (peace be upon him, abbreviated as pbuh in English texts) or sall ’Allahu alaihi wa sallam (May God’s blessings and salutations be upon him). A common expression of thanksgiving is wal hamdu l’Illah (thanks be to God). Service providers may interpret a refugee’s use of these expressions either as an indication of piety or as cultural markers common to Muslims of many backgrounds and approaches to faith.

Many observant Muslims adhere to religious customs regarding aspects of everyday life that are strongly influenced by culture and therefore vary depending on the individual Muslim’s country of origin, ethnic group, and personal level of observance.

Practices and Holy Days

Many Islamic communities emphasize correct practice, or orthopraxy, in addition to correct doctrine, or orthodoxy. The correct observance of ritual practice is outlined in the five pillars of Islam. For many observant Muslims, Islam is more than a system of beliefs; it is an entire way of life, founded on these five pillars.

1. The Shahadah: The profession of faith that affirms belief in the oneness of Allah and in the role of the Prophet Muhammad as Allah’s messenger.
   
   
2. Salaat: Ritual prayers, which are performed five times a day, at Fajr (dawn), Zuhr (midday), ‘Asr (late afternoon), Maghrib (evening), and ‘Isha (night). Prayers may take place in a mosque, at home, or in any place that is clean and appropriate. Muslims wash their hands, mouths, and feet before praying. When praying, a Muslim follows a prescribed series of standing and kneeling postures and focuses the mind on Allah. Not all Muslims pray five times a day; some have combined the prayers into a morning and an evening prayer.
   
   
3. Zakat: Almsgiving, especially to help the poor. Zakat helps to assure support for the needy and provides for an equitable distribution of wealth. The word Zakat means both piety and purity, emphasizing the relationship of financial responsibility to virtuous living.
   
   
4. Observance of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar and the time when Muslims believe the Qur’an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. The Islamic calendar is lunar and consists of 354 days. Therefore, Ramadan begins 10 days earlier each Western (Gregorian) year than the year before, and, over time, it moves through the seasons.
   Ramadan is a time of prayer, contemplation, and reflection on what is important in life, individual behavior, relationships with others, and why the believer is here on earth. It is a time of education when Muslims learn more about themselves, their relationship with God, and their relationships with others. It is a time when the individual Muslim’s entire being should be dedicated to and thoughtful of God. Muslims generally try to complete a full reading of the Qur’an during Ramadan, and those beyond the age of puberty abstain from eating, drinking, smoking, and sexual activity between sunrise and sunset. Ramadan is a special time to worship Allah and it is also a time to remember needy people and share with them what Allah has given. So Ramadan is a month for sharing and caring (Maloof, 2002a).
   
   
5. Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca. Each Muslim should try to make this pilgrimage at least once in life, health and finances permitting. The Hajj takes place during Dhul Hijjah, the twelfth month of the Islamic calendar.

In addition to the five pillars, many observant Muslims adhere to religious customs regarding aspects of everyday life that are strongly influenced by culture and therefore vary depending on the individual Muslim’s country of origin, ethnic group, and personal level of observance.

According to Hamid (1996), “Islam’s moral and legal code assures that everything is allowed unless it is prohibited, and not vice versa” (p. 124). There are clear designations about what is halal (permitted) or haram (prohibited). When it comes to resettlement of Muslims in other countries, it follows that “local customs not in contradiction with any principle or law of Islam have been incorporated with ease in the cultures of the Muslim peoples” (Hamid, 1996, p. 124). Thus, Muslim refugees combine Islamic teaching, the culture of national origin, and American culture as they build their new lives in the United States.

Food and drink: Islam forbids the consumption, production, distribution, and sale of pork. In addition, observant Muslims eat only meat that is halal, that is, slaughtered in accordance with Islamic custom. A halal market is a local ethnic market that sells meat and other products that are permissible for observant Muslims to eat. Islam also forbids the consumption, production, distribution, and sale of alcohol. Many Muslims do not give alcohol as gifts, even to non-Muslims. However, not all Muslims adhere strictly to these customs.

Dress and grooming: Modesty in all aspects of one’s life is important in Islam, for both men and women. Muslim men from some traditions wear a kufi (a small cap), and others regard the wearing of a beard as a religious requirement. The prescription for modesty is more evident, however, among observant Muslim women, who wear a hijab or head covering in public. The hijab varies from a head scarf to a robe that covers the hair, neck, and body, leaving the face and hands visible, and there is great variety among Muslims worldwide in the requirements for covering and the style of covering that is acceptable. The wearing of hijab is not universally observed among Muslim women. In some traditions, girls start to cover as they approach adolescence or as they develop a deeper commitment to their faith. Most importantly, the wearing of hijab is not synonymous with oppression of women or restrictions on their liberty. For many observant Muslim women, covering is a choice that symbolizes their commitment to the Islamic way of life.

Friday is the holy day of the week for Muslims, and the day when observant Muslims go to the mosque for communal prayers. Muslims also observe two annual holy days.

Eid ul-Fitr is the festival of breaking the fast of Ramadan. It is a one-day celebration that falls on the first day of Shawwal, the month after Ramadan.

Eid ul-Adha is celebrated at the end of the Hajj, beginning on the tenth day of the month of Dhul Hijjah. It is a 4-day feast that commemorates the obedience of the Prophet Abraham, who was willing to sacrifice his son Ishmael to God.

Muslims may also celebrate the birth of the Prophet Muhammad. Some also celebrate the birth of Fatimah (the daughter of Muhammad), the birth of Ali (the first Imam), or others. Shi‘a Muslims commemorate the deaths of Hassan, the second Imam, and Hussein, the third Imam. At the birth of a child and at weddings, many Muslims have special ceremonies that combine cultural and religious traditions. It is useful for service providers to ask refugees which holy days and practices are significant to them, and sometimes to help them explain their consequent needs to employers or school friends.

The Cultural Orientation Project--http://www.culturalorientation.net, for more information contact sanja@cal.org
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