Frequently Asked Questions about TWI
How well do students perform in Two-Way Immersion Programs?
In well-implemented programs, both native English speakers and language minority students tend to do as well or better than their peers in other educational programs.
For specific research on student performance in two-way programs, see the following publications:
- Cazabon, M., Lambert, W., & Hall, G. (1993). Two-Way Bilingual Education: A Progress Report on the Amigos Program (Research Report 7). Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.
- Cazabon, M., Nicoladis, E., & Lambert, W. (1998). Becoming Bilingual in the Amigos Two-Way Immersion Program (Research Report 3). Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education, Diversity, & Excellence.
- Christian, D., Montone, C., Lindholm, K., & Carranza, I. (1997). Profiles in Two-Way Immersion Education. McHenry, IL and Washington, DC: Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistics.
- Collier, V. P., & Thomas, W. P. (2004). The Astounding Effectiveness of Dual Language Education for All. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 2(1), 1-20.
- Howard, E. R., Christian, D., & Genesee, F. (2003). The Development of Bilingualism and Biliteracy from Grades 3 to 5: A Summary of Findings from the CAL/CREDE Study of Two-Way Immersion Education. Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence.
- Howard, E. R., Sugarman, J., & Christian, D. (2003). Trends in Two-Way Immersion Education: A Review of the Research (Report No. 63). Baltimore, MD: Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk.
- Lindholm-Leary, K. (2001). Dual Language Education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
- Lindholm-Leary, K. J., & Howard, E. R. (2008). Language development and academic achievement in two-way immersion programs. In T. W. Fortune & D. J. Tedick (Eds.), Pathways to Multilingualism: Evolving Perspectives on Immersion Education (pp. 177-200). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
- Thomas, W. & Collier, V. (1997). School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students (NCBE Resource Collection Series, No. 9). Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
- Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. (2002). A National Study of School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students' Long-Term Academic Achievement. Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence.
For more publications, see our bibliography page, particularly the sections on Academic Achievement and Language and Literacy Outcomes.